BİRİNCİ FEN · İKİNCİ BÂB · BİRİNCİ FASIL · Altıncı Madde

BİRİNCİ FEN · İKİNCİ BÂB · BİRİNCİ FASIL · Altıncı Madde **Article Six** Concerning the structure of the celestial sphere (the outermost sphere), its speed and daily movement, its influence on other spheres, the force of …

BİRİNCİ FEN · İKİNCİ BÂB · BİRİNCİ FASIL · Altıncı Madde

**Article Six**

Concerning the structure of the celestial sphere (the outermost sphere), its speed and daily movement,

its influence on other spheres, the force of attraction that dominates through its effect on the elements,

and the vastness of its emptiness—it is declared.

O esteemed one! Know that astronomers have stated: The highest sphere (the ultimate sphere) is the ninth sphere from the sphere of the moon, and it has acquired fame and renown with various names and attributes, as mentioned in the preceding passage. Its center is the center of the universe, its pole is the pole of the universe, encompassed between two spherical surfaces that are parallel to each other. It exists within a space devoid of other stars and planets, hence it is called the Sphere Atlas. Because it encompasses all places and celestial bodies, it marks the limit of the world (the true height) and the boundary of directions (the definer of aspects).

It is assumed that there is no void (halâ; vacuum) or fullness beyond the heavens, so the convex surface (muhaddeb; rounded) of the highest sphere remains distant from any body. It is a purely simple substance, free from all operations. However, its concave surface (sath-i mua‘‘ar; hollowed) is tangent to the convex surfaces (sath- muhaddeb; bulging) of the other fixed spheres (felek-i sevâbit).

Beneath the great sphere, there is no need to assume subsidiary spheres; only the great circles (devâir-i izâm), namely the equator circle (muaddilü’n-nehâr), and within its circumference, the inclination circle (daire-i eğim) are assumed between the two poles. The great sphere, with its vastness and magnitude, rotates around the center of the universe from east to west, completing its circuit in twenty-four hours, carrying within it the other spheres, even the fiery sphere and a portion of the airy sphere.

Each sphere has a place and volume (hayyiz) that it can never transgress. Rather, it moves with all its parts together by means of the motion given to it, so that it does not remain still even for the blink of an eye. The movement of the girdle region of each great sphere is very swift. As has been proven geometrically, in the time it takes a well-bred horse to lift and place its two feet during running, the great sphere traverses three thousand miles.

We glorify the Creator and the Wise in His creation, Allah Most High. What astonishing speed and what wondrous power that carries the sun, along with its orbiting planets, in an instant, while its diameter is far greater than that of the earth's globe! This astounding speed and amazing power are borne witness to by the following hadith: The Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) asked Gabriel (peace be upon him) at the time of sunset, “O my brother Gabriel, is it now the time of sunset?” Gabriel (peace be upon him) replied, "No, yes."

Upon this, the Noble Prophet (peace be upon him) again inquired, “Why did you say ‘yes’ after saying ‘no’?” The Trusted Gabriel (peace be upon him) responded: “When you asked the question, the sun had not yet reached the sunset point. Until I said 'no,' the sun traversed five hundred miles and passed beyond the meridian (nısf-ı nehâr).”

Thus, the Most High has declared this in a clear statement, saying: "The sun runs its course upon a fixed plan. Indeed, that is the decree of the Mighty, the All-Knowing." (Yasin, 36/38)

This meaning is preferred according to the recitation with “negation” (nefy). These are Ibn Abbas, Ibn Mas’ud, Ikrimah, and Ata (may Allah be pleased with them).

Although mathematicians and geometers have calculated the distances between planets and stars, their magnitudes, their masses, and their collision distances, comparing them one to another and explaining them at length, they have not been able to determine the orbit and measurements of the great sphere mentioned above, nor to ascertain its width and length. They have stated that it is beyond human capability to calculate the distance of its convex surface (muhadded; rounded) from the center of the universe and compare it with others, saying:

“Only He who created it knows the measurements of the great sphere.” However, mathematicians and geometers have observed other spheres, planets, and fixed stars using telescopes and estimated their distances. Therefore, in order to be consistent with our primary purpose—to provide a means for knowing (ma’rifet-i Mevlâ), contemplating the subtleties of craftsmanship in His creations, reflecting on the wisdom of His works, witnessing the orderly functioning of existence that is evidence of His greatness and power—it seemed appropriate to mention something from their knowledge. So that rational beings may see a resemblance of the wondrous workings of the universe within their own bodies and thus know themselves, and find their way to knowing their Lord (ma’rifet-i Mevlâ).

Although measuring planets and stars and estimating their magnitudes may seem distant and impossible for those unfamiliar with mathematical science (hikmet-i riyaziye), in truth, this knowledge is real and established. It is based on the rules of sound scientific data and rational judgments.

According to ancient philosophers, the nature of higher bodies is as follows: All spheres and stars are simple substances that are neither heavy nor light; neither hot nor cold; neither wet nor dry; they do not admit division nor combination. They are extremely subtle and pure.

As Allah Most High has said: "Indeed, the creation of the heavens and the earth is greater than the creation of men. But most people do not know."

insanların çoğu bunu bilmezler .” (Ğâfir, 40/57)

Kudret ve celâl sahibi Yüce Allah’ı tenzih ederiz; O her türlü noksan

sıfatlardan uzaktır. O ki âlemi benzersiz bir mükemmellikte yaratmış,

göklerdeki cisimlerin hareketlerini düzenleyip gece ile gündüzü birbirini

takip etmelerini takdir etmiştir: “ Rabbimiz, (bütün bunları) sen boşuna

yaratmadın. Bizi ateşin azâbından koru! ” (Âl-i İmrân 3/191)

Ey Rabbimiz! Bizi göklerin ve yerin yaratılışındaki mükemmelliği

düşünen, gece ile gündüzün birbirini takip etmesinden ibret alan

kullarından eyle!

[443] . İmam Gazzâli bu bahsin devâmında: “Onlar (filozoflar) yer

kaplayan

cevherlerle

(karşı

görüşte

olanların)

kastettiği

şeyi

kastetmemişlerdir” diyerek akãid âlimlerinin anladığı cevher lafzı ile

filozofların anladığı cevher lafzının farklı şeyler olduğunu vurgulamıştır.

Bkz. Tehâfüt el-Felâsife Filozofların Tutarsızlığı , Bekir Karlığa, Çağrı

Yayınları, İstanbul 1981, s. 7 ve devâmı.

[444] . Tevil: Arapça (

) kökünden gelen ve “geri dönme” anlamına gelen

bir mastardır. Istılahta ise, görünürde birbiriyle uyumlu iki ihtimalden birine

mânâyı yöneltmektir. Ali Turgut, Tefsir Usûlü ve Kaynakları , Marmara

Üniversitesi İlâhiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, İstanbul 1991, s. 221.

[445] . Kıt’a: Bu ilimde, bir dairenin bir kavsiyle onun kirişi (veter)

arasındaki kısmı demektir.

[446] . Nitekim yeryüzü düz bir satıh olsaydı, güney ve kuzey

istikãmetinde giden kişilere göre yıldızların yüksekliği aynı kalırdı. Çünkü

bir yıldızın yüksekliği; gözlenen yere onu birleştiren doğrunun, söz konusu

yerin ufuk düzlemiyle yaptığı açıdan ibarettir.

[447] . Nitekim, kıyıdan uzaklaşan bir geminin öncelikle gövde kısmı,

sonra bacası ve ardından direkleri gözden kaybolur.

[448] . Mıntaka-i burûc: On iki burcun (Koç, Boğa, İkizler, Yengeç,

Arslan, Başak, Terâzi, Akrep, Yay, Oğlak, Kova, Balık) Bulundukları

tutulma dairesi, Zodyak. Yavuz Unat, Eski Astronomi Metinlerinde

Karşılaşılan Astronomi Terimlerine İlişkin Bir Sözlük Denemesi. Bundan

sonraki Astronomi açıklamalarını Yavuz Unat’ın çalışmalarından aldığımızı

belirtiriz.

[449] . Meyl-i küllî, gaye el-meyl: En büyük eğim: Ekliptiğin ekvatora en

uzak noktaları; ekliptik ve ekvator daireleri arasındaki eğim. “Bu daire

(kutuplardan geçen daire) ekliptiği iki noktada keser. Bu iki nokta en büyük

eğim noktalarıdır ve bu noktalar kuzey ve güneyde, ekliptiğin ekvatora en

uzak noktalarıdır. Kuzeydeki nokta yaz dönencesi olarak adlandırılır ve

Yengeç burcunun başlangıcıdır. Güneydeki nokta ise kış dönencesi olarak

adlandırılır ve Oğlak burcunun başlangıcıdır.”

[450] . Ufuk (horizon): Gözlemcinin bulunduğu noktadan Yer’e çizilen

teğet düzlemin gökküresi ile arakesiti. İki ufuk vardır: 1-Görünür ya da

hissedilir ufuk (hissî ufuk), 2-Hakikî (gerçek, astronomik) ufuk. Hissî ufuk,

gözlemcinin bulunduğu noktadan Yer’e çizilen teğet düzlemdir; göğü,

gözlemciye görünen ve gözlemciye görünmeyen kısım olarak eşit olmayan

iki kısma ayırır. Hakikî (gerçek, astronomik) ufuk, hissî ufka paralel olan ve

Yer’in merkezi boyunca geçen düzlemdir. Gök küreyi iki eşit kısma ayırır.

[451] . Mıntıka: 1-Kuşak (zone): Yeryüzünde ya da herhangi bir gök

cisminde belli koşulları sağlayan bölge. 2-Bölge, yöre (field): Gökyüzünde

bölünmüş ya da seçilmiş alan.

[452] . El-Ard: Enlem (latituda/latitudo). 1-Yıldızın veya gezegenin

ekliptik düzleminden açısal uzaklığı; eklem, ekliptik kuşağından, yıldızın

kuzey ve güney yönlerine doğru olan eğimidir. İlkin, ekliptiğin

kutuplarından, yıldızdan ve ekliptik kuşağı üzerinde bulunan yıldızın

derecesinden geçen bir daire düşünelim; bu daire üzerinde, yıldız ile

yıldızın ekliptik kuşağında bulunan derecesi arasında kalan yayın, o yıldızın

enleminin miktarı olduğunu söyleriz. 2-Coğrafî enlem: Yerküre üzerindeki

herhangi bir noktanın ekvatordan açısal uzaklığı.

[453] . Semt-i kadem (İngilizce, Nadîr): Yeryüzündeki bir gözlem

noktasından geçen düşey doğrultusunun gökyüzünü deldiği iki noktadan

ufkun altında olanı.

[454] . Felek (küre/sphere): Astronomide göğü ve gezegenlerin

hareketlerini açıklamak maksadıyla kullanılan ve kimilerince matematiksel

ve kimilerince de fiziksel gerçekliği olan ve gezegenleri taşıyan göksel

yapılar. Eski astronomlar Yer’in üzerinde maddî bir gök küre bulunduğunu

kabul etmişler ve bu küre, gök cisimlerinin konumlarını göstermeye

elverişli olduğu için günümüzde de sanal olarak kabul edilmiştir. Eski

astronomiye göre her bir gezegenin küresi vardır ve gök küresi bütün bu

küreleri içine alır. M.S. 150’li yıllarda yaşamış olan Batlamyus ve onu

izleyen astronomlar bu kürelerin sayısını sekiz olarak kabul etmişler, ancak

dokuzuncu yüzyılda Sâbit ibn Kurrâ (826/901) Batlamyus’un sekiz küre

olarak verdiği evren modeline, ekinoksların salınımını açıklamak için “ilk

hareket ettirici (primum mobile) adını verdiği dokuzuncu bir küre daha

eklemiştir. Bu dokuz kürelik evren modeli daha sonra bütün ortaçağ

düşüncesinde kabul edilmiş ve bazı astronomlar tarafından onuncu ve hatta

on birinci küreler eklenmiştir. Bu sistemde her bir gezegenin hareketi bir

takım iç içe geçmiş kürelerle açıklanmaktadır. Bu küreler katı, kristal

yapıdadır ve şeffaftır. Küre-i Arz (küre-i âlem, yeryüzü dünya) bütün

kürelerin merkezindedir. Sonra sırasıyla Küre-i Kamer (ay), Küre-i Utarid

(Merkür), Küre-i Zühre (Venüs), Küre-i Şems (Güneş), Küre-i Merih

(Mars), Küre-i Müşteri (Jüpiter) ve Küre-i Zuhal (Satürn) gelir. Bütün bu

The spheres are surrounded by the sphere of fixed stars, called the *Küre-i Kevâkib-i Sâbit*.

[455]. The Meridian Circle: The great circle passing through the poles of the equator and ecliptic, as well as the zenith and nadir points.

[456]. The Altitude Circle: The circle passing through the zenith and nadir points and the center of a celestial body. This circle passes through an assumed point in the sky and the zenith and nadir points, intersecting the horizon at two points. These two points are called azimuth (direction) points. Therefore, this circle is also known as the Azimuth Circle (*daire-i semtiyye*).

[457]. The First Azimuth Circle: The altitude circle passing through the zenith, nadir, and the true east point, from which the altitude angle is taken relative to it.

[458]. The Declination Circle: The great circle passing through the two poles of the equator and a portion of the ecliptic or the center of a star. The arc between the portion of the ecliptic and the equatorial circle is called the first inclination (*meyl-i evvel*). The arc between the center of the star and the equator is that star's declination.

[459]. The Apparent Celestial (Mid-)Circle: The great circle passing through the poles of the ecliptic and the zenith and nadir points, dividing the ecliptic into visible and invisible portions. The poles of this circle are the rising and setting points.

[460]. *Medâr*: 1- Orbit: The circle upon which a celestial body revolves; the path it traces during its movement. 2- Turning Point: A place or circle where the sun or moon appears to turn back in its visible motion.

[461]. Vernal Equinox: This is what they call the moment when the sun rises north of the equator. The Aries point.

[462]. Autumnal Equinox: This is the moment when the sun descends south of the equator. The point where the Libra constellation resides.

[463]. Point of Solstice (*Nokta-i İnkılâb*): The event and date when nights transition from lengthening to shortening (December 22, *inkılâbü’ş-şitâvî* / winter solstice) or from shortening to lengthening (June 22, *inkılâbü’s-sayfî* / summer solstice).

[464]. East Declination: The angular distance of a celestial body's rising point from the true east point.

[465]. West Declination: The angular distance of a celestial body's rising point from the true west point.

[466]. *Semt*: Southern angle. In the horizon coordinate system, the angular distance of a star from the south direction.

[467]. Nadir: Footpoint. One of the two points beneath the horizon that the vertical line passing through an observation point on Earth pierces in the sky.

[468]. *Semt-i Re’s*: Zenith, headpoint. One of the two points beneath the horizon that the vertical line passing through an observation point on Earth pierces in the sky.

[469]. First Inclination (*Meyl-i Evvel*): The arcs between the great circle passing through the poles of the equator and the ecliptic.

[470]. *Hatt*: Specific positions of a planet on the ecliptic.

[471]. Second Inclination (*Meyl-i Sâni*): The arcs between the great circle passing through the poles of the ecliptic and the equator and ecliptic.

[472]. Point of Sunrise (*Nokta-i Maşrık*, *Nokta-i Tulû‘*): The east point, the eastern limit point. The point on the horizon circle where it intersects the equator, located on the east side.

[473]. Point of Sunset (*Nokta-i Mağrib*): The west point, the western limit point. The point on the horizon circle where it intersects the equator, located on the west side.

[474]. Apparent Climate Latitude (*Arz-ı İklîm-i Rü’yet*): The apparent latitude of a climate. The arc between the zenith and the ecliptic or between the horizon and the pole of the ecliptic, on the apparent celestial (mid-)circle (*daire-i vasatı’s-semâi’r-rü’ye*).

[475]. *Esîr*: A weightless, elastic, and fluid light substance that fills the universe and permeates all bodies; it is assumed by physicists to be a medium for transmitting light, heat, and electricity.

[476]. Greatest Inclination (*Gayetü’l-Meyl*): The greatest inclination: the points where the ecliptic is farthest from the equator; the inclination between the ecliptic and equatorial circles. According to ancient anatomy, this circle (passing through the poles) intersects the ecliptic at two points. These two points are the points of greatest inclination, which are the points furthest north and south on the ecliptic relative to the equator. The northern point is called the summer solstice and is the beginning of the Cancer constellation. The southern point is called the winter solstice and is the beginning of the Capricorn constellation.

[477]. Point of Solstice (*Nokta-i İnkılâb*): Solstices. The event and date when nights transition from lengthening to shortening (December 22, *inkılâb-ı şitâvî* / winter solstice) or from shortening to lengthening (June 22, *inkılâb-ı sayfî* / summer solstice).

Subsequently, Imam al-Ghazali relates the hadith concerning solar and lunar eclipses and says: “If it is said what about the phrase at the end of the hadith, ‘The lunar eclipse is a reverence due to divine manifestation’? We say that this sentence has been added to the end of the hadith, and it is not correct to relate it in this form. Even if it were authentic, it is more prudent to interpret it rather than argue about it definitively, for how can it be imprudent when many miracles have been interpreted by rational evidence despite being so unclear? How much less should credence be given to something that is not authentically transmitted.”

For (the determination) of the nine spheres does not fully encompass understanding the state of the heavens, and astronomical scholars have only observed the states of the seven planets. That is, as the planets proceed on a straight line, they sometimes stop and slow down, sometimes advance with speed, sometimes turn back along their course, sometimes move like the sun, traversing between the two points of “greatest inclination” (*meyl-i küllî*; *gayetü’l-meyl*), which are the two solstice points (*nokta-i inkılâb*), and sometimes shift the solstice points considerably to the south and north, sometimes diminish their light, and sometimes increase it. Thus, they exhibit such conditions.

The tenth circle is the visible celestial (mid-heaven) circle (dā’ire-i vasat-ı semâ’ü’r-rü’ye). This circle passes through the poles of the zodiacal belt (mıntıkatü’l-burûc; felekü’l-burûc) and the horizon circles (daire-i ufuk). Its two poles are the rising point (nokta-i tâli‘; nokta-i maşrık) and the setting points (nokta-i gârib; nokta-i mağrib). The apparent latitude of the visible climate (arz-ı iklîm-i rü’yet) is the oblique angle formed in this circle between the horizon circle and the ecliptic (kutb-ı mıntıkati’l-burûc). We suffice with explaining the great circles (devâir-i izâm) and will explain the remaining small circles as they arise.

According to Takiyuddin al-Razi, the zodiacal belt (mıntakatü’l-burûc) passes through the inclination of the ecliptic and, after a long interval, gradually aligns with the horizon of equinoxes, and the mansions of other planets also align similarly. With this, the sun would rise in the west. Indeed, even today, at sixty degrees latitude (ard-arz), the sun rises in the west. If Amr insisted on his view, stipulating, “If it is not possible and true to explain it this way, may my wife be divorced,” then his wife would be divorced.

The third issue: Zayd says that there is a city on earth other than Mecca where there are four directions of qibla. That place is at the heel point (semt-i kadem) of Mecca. If Amr opposes this, and they both insist, stipulating, “If my statement is not true, may my slave be freed,” whose oath would be invalidated?

It is also necessary that the greatest distance of the zodiacal circle (daire-i muaddilü’n-nehâr) from the equator (daire-i muaddilü’n-nehâr) occurs in two points within half of the aforementioned semicircle, one being the north pole (kutb-ı şimâli), which is called the summer solstice point (nokta-i inkılâb-i sayfî), and the other being the south pole, which is called the winter solstice point (nokta-i inkılâb-ı şitâvî).

6 – The altitude circle (daire-i irtifâ.)

Because the zodiacal circle is as great as the equator (daire-i muaddilü’n-nehâr).

The point where the inclination of the zodiacal belt (daire-i muaddilü’n-nehâr) towards the north begins from the equator (daire-i muaddilü’n-nehâr) is called the vernal equinox (nokta-i itidal-i rebî‘-i; day of equal length). (March 21) Because when the sun reaches that point, spring season is experienced in habitable regions of the earth. The corresponding point is called the autumnal equinox (nokta-i itidal-i harîf; day of equal length). (December 23)

The gradual rising of newly risen stars from the horizon to mid-heaven and their subsequent movement westward, maintaining the same apparent size throughout their rotation, the constant visibility of half or nearly half of the sky from earth, the rising and setting of stars appearing earlier for those living in the east and later for those living in the west, the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses at calculated times without deviation, the continuous increase in the altitude of the pole star and other northern stars as one travels north, while southern stars continuously descend, the observation by travelers on ships that the high parts of coastlines and mountains obscured by the curvature of the sea are seen first, followed by the lower parts as they approach land, the equal duration of rising and setting times for stars, and the equality of shadows cast at sunrise and sunset when the sun is on the equinox line (muaddilü’n-nehâr) [on March 21 and September 23], are all proofs that the earth and the heavens are round and spherical. The appearance of a circular shadow on the moon during a lunar eclipse is clear evidence that the earth is spherical. For if the earth were not spherical but triangular, square, or hexagonal, the shadow cast upon the surface of the moon during a lunar eclipse would appear in one of those shapes rather than as a circle.

Whenever observations of eclipses are made, the shadow is always seen in a circular form, and this has never been otherwise observed.

8th – The circle of inclination (daire-i meyl).

5th – The meridian circle (daire-i nısfu’n-nehâr).

The circle of altitude (daire-i irtifâ) intersects the horizon circle at two points forming right angles (zevâyâ-yı kaime), and these points are not fixed, but shift due to the movement (intikal) of stars and the sun along the horizon circle. These are called the direction points (nokta-i semt). The angle formed within the horizon circle between these points and the east and west points is termed the nadir arc (kavs-i semt). The angle between these two direction points (nokta-i semt) and the north and south points is called the entirety of the zenith (zenit; tamam-ı semt). And this circle of altitude (daire-i irtifâ) is the meridian circle (daire-i nısf-ı nehâr), which intersects twice in a day and night.

The two points where this horizon circle intersects with the zodiac circle are called the rising (Tâli‘; yükselen) and setting (gârib; alçalan). The angle formed by the east point with either the zodiac circle or the center of a star (merkez-i kevkeb), measured from the horizon circle, is termed the eastern amplitude (siatü’l-maşrık). Similarly, the angle formed by the west point with those same points, measured from the horizon circle, is called the western amplitude (siatü’l-mağrib). The small circles parallel to the horizon circle are called arched bridges (mukandarât). The circles above the horizon circle are termed altitude bridges (mukantarât-ı irtifâ), and those below it are called declination bridges (mukandarât-ı inhitât).

Perhaps this astonishing and wondrous assemblage of a sculpted form and structure has been accepted by all Islamic philosophers and most religious scholars, and we will summarize it as follows: the world of bodies (âlem-i ecsâm) consists of spheres and elements enveloping and surrounding one another, layered like an onion, all forming a spherical shape together. The ethereal bodies (ecsâm-ı esîriyye), that is, all the heavens (eflâk-ı külliye), are nine in number. It is assumed that a portion (cüz’) of all high bodies (ecrâm-i âliyât) and the elements of low bodies exists at the center of this world, which is the center of that realm and the essence of everything.

According to Takıyyüddîn Râsıd’s view: The Zodiac (mıntakatü’l-burûc) passes through the inclination and gradually aligns with the horizon of equinoxes, along with the regions of other planets, so that the sun rises in the west. Indeed, even today, at sixty degrees latitude (ard-arz), the sun rises in the west.” [thus explaining the rising of the sun from the west based on scientific justifications]. Amr insisted on his view, stating: “It is not possible or correct to explain the matter this way. If it were possible, may my wife be divorced." Would Amr’s wife then be divorced?

7th – The first azimuth circle (daire-i evvel-i sümût).

The tenth circle is the visible sky’s central circle (daire-i vasat-ı semâ-i rü’yet). This circle passes through the poles of the zodiac belt (mıntıkatü’l-burûc) and the horizon circles (daire-i ufuk). Its two poles are the rising point (nokta-i tâli‘; nokta-i maşrık) and the setting points (nokta-i gârib; nokta-i mağrib). The small angle formed in this circle between the horizon circle and the ecliptic (kutb-ı mıntıkati’l-burûc), or vice versa, is the visible climatic latitude (arz-ı iklîm-i rü’yet). In this section, we suffice with explaining the great circles (devâir-i ızâm) and will explain the remaining smaller circles as they arise.

O esteemed one! The astronomers (ehl-i hey'et) have said: It should be known that all affairs of the world are interconnected. The world itself (nefs-i âlem) is spheres enveloping and tangent to each other (mümâs), with no space for even a needle to pass, filled with exalted (ulvî) and base (süflî) bodies. The natural structure (hey’et-i tabiî) of this world is roundness. Numerous proofs have established this claim, demonstrating that it requires a circular form. One of the proofs of this is: Regardless of which side one looks at the world from, a rounded and spherical shape (şekl-i muhaddeb) is seen, and it is known through the laws of calculation (fikr-i nazar) and human experience that each continent is an arc (kavs).

Because the zodiacal circle is like the equator (daire-i muaddilü’n-nehâr) in size. One of those points from which the inclination of the zodiac from the equator northward begins; this is called the vernal equinox (nokta-i itidal-i rebî‘-i; day equality). For when the Sun reaches that point, spring season is seen in habitable regions of the world. Corresponding to this is the autumnal equinox (nokta-i itidal-i harîf; day equality) (December 21st).

. Mıntaka-i burûc: The circle of constellations, encompassing the twelve signs (Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces), is the zodiac. We state that the following astronomical explanations are drawn from the works of Yavuz Unat.

. Meyl-i küllî, gaye el-meyl: The greatest inclination: the farthest points of the ecliptic from the equator; the inclination between the ecliptic and equatorial circles. "This circle (the circle passing through the poles) intersects the ecliptic at two points. These two points are the points of greatest inclination and are north and south, the farthest points of the ecliptic from the equator. The northern point is called the summer solstice and is the beginning of Cancer. The southern point is called the winter solstice and is the beginning of Capricorn."

. Ufuk (horizon): The intersection of the tangent plane of an observer's location with the celestial sphere. There are two horizons: 1-The perceptible or felt horizon (hissî ufuk), 2-The true (astronomical) horizon. The perceived horizon is the tangent plane from the observer’s location to the Earth, dividing the sky into two unequal parts, visible and invisible to the observer; the true (astronomical) horizon is the plane parallel to the perceptible horizon, passing through the center of the Earth. It divides the celestial sphere into two equal parts.

. Daire-i nısfü’n-nehâr: The meridian circle; the great circle passing through the equator, ecliptic, poles, and zenith and nadir points.

. Daire-i irtifâ: The circle passing through the zenith and nadir points and the center of a celestial body. This circle passes through an imaginary point in the sky and the zenith and nadir points and intersects the horizon at two points. These two points are called azimuth (semt) points. For this reason, it is also called the azimuth circle (daire-i semtiyye).

Because the determination of (nine) spheres is not sufficient to comprehend entirely the state of the heavens, but astronomers have only observed the states related to the seven planets. That is, while the planets proceed in a straight line, they sometimes stop and slow down, sometimes advance with speed, sometimes return on their course, sometimes move like the Sun, traversing between the two solstitial points (nokta-i inkılâb) which are comprised of “the greatest inclination” (meyl-i küllî; gayetü’l-meyl), sometimes shift the solstitial points southward and northward, and sometimes their lights…

They shift, sometimes increasing and sometimes decreasing, such that with these conditions they are sometimes close to the earth and sometimes far from it.

. **First Azimuthal Circle:** The circle passing through the zenith, nadir, and the true eastern point, from which the azimuth angle is taken in relation to its height.

. **Declination Circle:** A great circle passing through both poles of the equator and a portion of the ecliptic, or the center of a star. The arc between the portion of the ecliptic and the equatorial circle is called the first inclination (first meyl). The arc between the star's center and the equator is that star’s declination.

. **Mıntıka:** 1- Zone: A region on the earth or any celestial body that meets certain conditions. 2- Field: A divided or selected area of the sky.

. **El-Ard:** Latitude. 1- The angular distance of a star or planet from the plane of the ecliptic; the inclination, measured north and south from its ecliptical zone. Initially, let us consider a circle passing through the poles of the ecliptic, a star, and the degree located on the ecliptical belt; we say that the arc between the star and the degree located in the ecliptical belt is the amount of that star’s latitude. 2- Geographic Latitude: The angular distance of any point on the earth's surface from the equator.

. **Semt-i kadem (English, Nadîr):** One of the two points below the horizon through which a vertical line passing through an observation point on the earth’s surface pierces the sky.

. **Felek (sphere):** In astronomy, spheres used to explain the movements of the heavens and planets; structures celestial that some consider mathematically real and others physically real, carrying the planets. Ancient astronomers accepted a material sphere above the Earth, and it is virtually accepted today because it is suitable for showing the positions of celestial bodies. According to ancient astronomy, each planet has its own sphere, and the celestial sphere encompasses all these spheres. In the 150s AD, Ptolemy and those who followed him accepted the number of these spheres as eight; however, in the ninth century, Sâbit ibn Kurrâ (826/901) added a ninth sphere, which he called the "primum mobile," to explain the precession of the equinoxes, to the universe model given by Ptolemy as eight spheres. This nine-sphere universe model was later accepted throughout medieval thought and some astronomers added tenth and even eleventh spheres. In this system, the movement of each planet is explained by a set of nested spheres. These spheres are solid, crystalline, and transparent. The sphere of the Earth (the world sphere, the earth) is at the center of all spheres. Next come, in order: the Sphere of the Moon, the Sphere of ‘Utarid (Mercury), the Sphere of Zuhra (Venus), the Sphere of Shams (Sun), the Sphere of Marikh (Mars), the Sphere of Mushtari (Jupiter), and the Sphere of Zuhal (Saturn). All these spheres are surrounded by the sphere of fixed stars, called the Sphere of the Fixed Stars.

. **Apparent Celestial Circle:** A great circle passing through the poles of the ecliptic and the zenith and nadîr points, dividing the ecliptic into visible and invisible parts. The poles of this circle are the rising and setting points.

. **Medâr:** 1- Orbit: The circular path on which a celestial body revolves; the path it traces during its movement. 2- Turning Point: A place or circle where the sun or moon appear to turn back in their apparent motion.

. **Vernal Equinox:** This is what they call the moment when the Sun rises above the northern equator. The Aries point.

. **Semt:** Southern angle. In the horizon coordinate system, the angular distance of a star from the southern direction.

. **Nadir:** Footpoint. One of the two points below the horizon through which a vertical line passing through an observation point on the earth’s surface pierces the sky.

. **Semt-i re’s:** Zenith, head point. One of the two points below the horizon through which a vertical line passing through an observation point on the earth’s surface pierces the sky.

. **Meyl-i evvel:** The arcs between the great circle passing through the poles of the equator and the ecliptic.

. **Autumnal Equinox:** The moment when the Sun descends below the equator. The point of the Libra constellation.

. **Nokta-i inkılâb:** Solstice. The event where nights transition from lengthening to shortening (December 22, winter solstice / winter turning point) or from shortening to lengthening (June 22, summer solstice / summer turning point), and the date on which this occurs.

. **Eastern Declination:** The angular distance of celestial bodies from the true eastern point.

. **Western Declination:** The angular distance of celestial bodies from the true western point.

. **Hatt:** Specific positions of a planet on the ecliptic.

. **Meyl-i sâni:** The arcs between the great circle passing through the poles of the ecliptic and the ecliptic.

. **Nokta-i maşrık: Nokta-i tulû‘:** East point, east meridian point. The point on the eastern side of the horizon circle where it intersects the equator.

"According to Takıyyüddîn Râsıd’s view; the Zodiac (zone of constellations) passes through the inclination and, after a long interval, gradually aligns with the horizon of equinoxes, and the zones of other planets also align in the same way, so that the Sun rises from the west. Indeed, at sixty-sixth latitude (ard-arz), the Sun does rise from the west," [explaining the rising of the sun from the west based on scientific justifications] like this. If Amr insisted on his view, saying, "It is not possible and correct to explain the matter in this way. If it were possible, my wife would be divorced," would his wife then be divorced?

. **Nokta-i inkılâb:** Solstice.

"The point of the West: The western point, the western *alim* point: That of the horizon circle which intersects the equator and lies on its western side.

The climate zone visible: The apparent climatic latitude. The arc on the visible celestial sphere (circle-of-the-visible-heaven) between the zenith and the ecliptic or between the horizon and the pole of the ecliptic.

*’Esîr*: A substance filling the universe and permeating all bodies, which physicists consider to be a medium for transmitting light, heat, and electricity, is weightless, elastic, and fluid.

The greatest inclination: The farthest points of the ecliptic from the equator; the inclination between the ecliptic and the equator circles. According to ancient anatomy, this circle (passing through the poles) intersects the ecliptic at two points. These are the points of greatest inclination, which are called the summer solstice in the north and the winter solstice in the south.

The rising circle (circle-of-altitude) cuts the horizon circle at two points at right angles (fixed angles), so that these points change position due to the movement (transition) of stars and the sun on the horizon circle. Each of these points is called (*nokta-i semt*). The angle formed in the horizon circle between these points, the east and west points, is called the arc (*kavs*), which is the nadir point. The angle between these two points (*nokta-i semt*) and the south and north points is called the whole of the head’s zenith (*zenit; tamam-ı semt*). And this altitude circle (circle-of-altitude) is the meridian circle (circle-of-the-midday), which intersects twice a day and night.

The eighth circle: is the declination circle (daire-i meyl). This too is a large moving circle, passing through the two poles of the equator. The distance of a star from the equator (*bu’d-ı kevkeb*) and the inclination of the belt of constellations (*meyl-i mıntıkatı’l-burûc*) are known by this. It has also been called the first subsidiary declination circle (meyl-i evvel).

O esteemed one! Know that astronomers have demonstrated the existence of various circles along with their poles on the globe of the universe to ascertain events occurring in the spheres and upon the earth, and to explain the connection between them. Then they divided these famous circles into two categories: some as great circles (devâir-i ızâm) and others as small circles (devâir-i sıgâr). A great circle (daire-i azîme) is that which divides the globe of the universe into two parts, its center being undoubtedly the center of the universe. A small circle (daire-i sagîre) is one that does not divide the universe into two equal parts. Some of these are large in relation to their sphere, yet they are called small circles. Such as the revolving belts (manâtık-ı tedâvir).

The tenth circle: is the visible celestial sphere (circle-of-the-visible-heaven) (daire-i vasat-ı semâ-i rü’yet). This circle passes through the poles of the belt of constellations (mıntıkatı’l-burûc) and the horizon circles (daire-i ufuk). Its two poles are the rising point (*nokta-i tâli‘; nokta-i maşrık*) and the setting points (*nokta-i gârib; nokta-i mağrib*). The arc formed on the circle of the horizon with the ecliptic (kutb-ı mıntıkati’l-burûc) or vice versa in this circle is the visible climatic latitude (arz-ı iklîm-i rü’yet). In this section, we suffice to explain only the great circles (devâir-i ızâm), and will elucidate the remaining small circles as they arise.

The rising circle (daire-i irtifâ) cuts the horizon circle at two points at right angles (zevâyâ-yı kaime), so that these points change position due to the movement (transition) of stars and the sun on the horizon circle. Each of these points is called (*nokta-i semt*). The angle formed in the horizon circle between these points, the east and west points, is called the arc (*kavs*), which is the nadir point. The angle between these two points (*nokta-i semt*) and the south and north points is called the whole of the head’s zenith (*zenit; tamam-ı semt*). And this altitude circle (daire-i irtifâ) is the meridian circle (daire-i nısf-ı nehâr), which intersects twice a day and night.

The ninth circle: is the latitude circle (daire-i arz). This too is a large moving circle, passing through the two poles of the belt of constellations and passing from the head of that line, which comes from the center of the universe and passes through the center of the star (*merkez-i kevkeb*) and rises to the surface of the belt of constellations. The latitude of the star is known by this circle, and the second subsidiary inclination (meyl-i sâni) of the belt of constellations is found with it from the equator (muaddilü’n-nehâr).

The gradual rising of the portions of stars rising, until they reach the middle of the day's horizon, their continued movement towards the west, and their appearing the same in size throughout their revolution, but appearing different and larger at the time of sunrise and sunset due to the effect of moisture and mist on the earth, always seeing half or nearly half of the sky from the earth, stars rising earlier for those living in the east than for those in the west, eclipses of the Moon and Sun occurring at calculated times without fail, a constant increase in the height of the pole star and other northern stars to a person constantly traveling north, while the southern stars are constantly decreasing, a constant increase in the height of the pole star with the southern stars to a person constantly traveling south…"

The increasing [height] of the North Star’s continual descent, those traveling by ship seeing first the high peaks of coasts and mountains obscured by the ocean's curvature, and then as they approach land, gradually perceiving their lower portions; the equal duration of rising and setting times for the stars; when the sun is upon the equinoctial line [the plane of day and night], and night and day are equal [on March 21st and September 23rd], the shadow cast at sunrise and sunset being equal in length, extending westward and eastward along a straight line – all these are proofs that the earth and the heavens are round and spherical. The appearance of a circular shape upon the moon during an eclipse, which is the Earth’s shadow, is clear proof that the earth is a sphere. For if the earth were not round but triangular, square, or hexagonal, then the shadow cast upon the lunar surface during an eclipse would not appear as a circle, but rather as one of the aforementioned shapes – triangle, square, or hexagon. However, the shadow observed during eclipses always appears circular, and its opposite has never been witnessed.