In this year, Muʿāwiya sent ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ to Egypt. ʿAmr took the land of Egypt from Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr. Muʿāwiya appointed ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ as governor of Egypt. Previously, ʿAlī had appointed Qays b. Saʿd b. ʿUbāda as governor there. Qays had rescued it from Muḥammad b. Abī Ḥudhayfa, who had seized it. When ʿUthmān was besieged, the governor of Egypt was ʿAbd Allāh b. Saʿd b. Abī Sarḥ. ʿAbd Allāh had removed ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ, who had conquered Egypt, from his post there. As we have recounted on previous pages, later ʿAlī dismissed Qays b. Saʿd from the governorship of Egypt and appointed Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, in his place. However, he regretted dismissing Qays, for Qays b. Saʿd was a figure equal to both Muʿāwiya and ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ. When Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, was appointed, he did not possess the strength to match Muʿāwiya and ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ. After being dismissed from the governorship, Qays b. Saʿd returned to Medina, then went to join ʿAlī in Iraq and remained with him. Muʿāwiya used to say regarding this:
"By Allah, Qays b. Saʿd angers me more than the one hundred thousand warriors with ʿAlī."
Qays fought against Muʿāwiya in the ranks of ʿAlī at the Battle of Ṣiffīn. After Ṣiffīn, when ʿAlī heard that the Egyptians belittled Muḥammad b. Abū Bakr because he was a young man of twenty-six and did not recognize his authority, he decided to reappoint Qays b. Saʿd as governor of Egypt. He wished to entrust the security forces either to him or to al-Ashtar al-Nakhaʿī, who was governor of Mosul and Nisibis. After Ṣiffīn, ʿAlī informed al-Ashtar of this by letter, summoned him, and then appointed him as governor of Egypt.
When Muʿāwiya heard that al-Ashtar al-Nakhaʿī had been appointed governor of Egypt in place of Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, he became very angry, for he had coveted taking Egypt from Muḥammad. He knew that al-Ashtar, being intelligent and brave, would defend Egypt against him. Al-Ashtar set out for Egypt and reached Qulzum, where the tax collector Hansar met him, gave him food, and served him honey sherbet. As a result, al-Ashtar died. When Muʿāwiya, ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ, and the Syrians heard of this, they said, "Allah has soldiers made of honey."
According to Ibn Jarīr in his work "Tārīkh," Muʿāwiya had sent word to Hansar, instructing him to set a trap for al-Ashtar and kill him, promising him certain rewards if he did so. Thus, Hansar killed al-Ashtar. However, there is disagreement regarding the truth of this account. If we assume it is true, then Muʿāwiya deemed it permissible to kill al-Ashtar because he was among the killers of ʿUthmān.
In summary, Muʿāwiya and the Syrians greatly rejoiced at the death of al-Ashtar al-Nakhaʿī. When ʿAlī learned of al-Ashtar's death, he was grieved, for al-Ashtar was a brave and capable man. He wrote to Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, ordering him to continue as governor of Egypt. However, Muḥammad's authority in Egypt had weakened, and the supporters of ʿUthmān in the town of Harbita had raised the banner of opposition and grown stronger. When ʿAlī returned from Ṣiffīn and the arbitration incident occurred, the Iraqis, having been defeated by the Syrians, returned in disarray, while the opposition in Egypt grew stronger. The Syrians, during the turmoil at Dūmat al-Jandal, pledged allegiance to Muʿāwiya as caliph, strengthening their position. At that time, Muʿāwiya convened his commanders—ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ, Shuraḥbīl b. Simṭ, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Khālid b. al-Walīd, Ḍaḥḥāk b. Qays, Busr b. Abī Artāt, Abū Aʿwar al-Sulamī, Ḥamza b. Sinān al-Hamadanī, and others—to consult about going to Egypt. They agreed, saying, "Wherever you go, we will go with you." Muʿāwiya then announced that if Egypt were conquered, he would appoint ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ as governor, to which ʿAmr rejoiced and said, "I think it appropriate to send troops under a reliable and experienced commander against the Egyptians, for there are supporters of ʿUthmān there who will aid the army you send against the opposition."
Muʿāwiya replied, "I wish to send someone to inform our supporters there that we are sending troops, and also to send someone to our opponents to invite them to peace. O ʿAmr! You are known for your haste and have benefited from it, while I am known for my deliberation and have benefited from it. O ʿAmr! Do what Allah decrees for you. I swear, the matter between you and the Egyptians will only be settled by war."
After this, Muʿāwiya sent word to the leaders of the supporters of ʿUthmān and those who had not pledged allegiance to ʿAlī in Egypt—Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj al-Sakūnī and Maslama b. Mukhalled al-Anṣārī—informing them that his army was on its way to Egypt. The number of ʿUthmān's supporters in Egypt was about 10,000. He sent this message to Egypt via his slave Sabiʾ. When the letter reached Maslama and Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj, they rejoiced and replied, expressing their happiness and their willingness to assist the army. Muʿāwiya then dispatched an army of 6,000 under the command of ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ to Egypt. He sent the army off, advising ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ to fear Allah, have taqwa (God-consciousness), be merciful, grant respite to opponents, not be hasty, fight those who fought him, forgive those who fled, and invite people to peace and unity. He said, "If you are victorious, let your helpers have a privileged position with you." ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ set out for Egypt, and when he arrived, the supporters of ʿUthmān joined his forces. ʿAmr took them under his command and sent the following letter to Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr:
"Now depart from here, for I do not wish to be the one to kill you. I do not desire to triumph over you. The people of these lands have gathered against you, protested your rule, and regretted following you. When the outward and inward come together, they will hand you over to the one who will kill you. Leave this place. Truly, I am one who gives you sincere advice. Peace."
Along with this letter, ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ also sent Muʿāwiya's letter to Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr. In his letter, Muʿāwiya wrote:
"The consequence of transgression and injustice is a great burden. Whoever sheds blood unjustly will not escape retribution in this world or a painful responsibility in the Hereafter. Indeed, we know of no one who opposed ʿUthmān more fiercely than you. At that time, you struck his bowels and jugular vein with your dagger, and you thought I was unaware of your actions. Now you have become governor of a land neighboring mine, but the majority of its people are my supporters. I have sent against you an army whose soldiers consider fighting you as a means of drawing near to Allah. Wherever you may be, Allah will surely exact retribution from you and subject you to requital. Peace."
Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, folded these two letters and sent them to ʿAlī, informing him that ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ had come to Egypt with an army by Muʿāwiya's order. He then said, "If you need the land of Egypt, send me wealth and men. Peace." ʿAlī replied by letter, urging him to be patient, to fight the enemy, and promising to send him wealth and reinforcements as much as possible. Muḥammad then sent a harshly worded reply to Muʿāwiya and a similar letter to ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ. He also addressed the people, urging them to jihad and to fight the approaching Syrians.
ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ, with his own army and the supporters of ʿUthmān who had joined him in Egypt, assembled a force of 10,000 and entered Egypt.
Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, set out with 2,000 Egyptian cavalry who responded to his call. He appointed Kināna b. Bishr as commander of his vanguard. Kināna fought the Syrians he encountered, defeated them, and sent them to ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ. ʿAmr, in turn, sent Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj against Muḥammad. Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj attacked Muḥammad's forces from the rear, while the Syrians attacked from the front, thus encircling Muḥammad's army. Kināna dismounted and fought the enemy, reciting the following verse:
"No soul can ever die except by Allah's permission at a destined time." (Āl ʿImrān 3:145)
Kināna fought until he was killed. Upon this, Muḥammad's soldiers dispersed. Muḥammad himself took refuge in a ruin. ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ entered the city of Fusṭāṭ. Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj began searching for Muḥammad. He came upon a group and asked, "Has an unknown man passed by here?" They replied, "No." Then one among them said, "I saw a man sitting in that ruin." Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj said, "By the Lord of the Kaʿba, it is him." They went to the ruin and brought Muḥammad out; he was on the verge of dying from thirst. His brother ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Abī Bakr, who had also come to Egypt with him, went to ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ and protested, "Will you kill my brother with torture?" ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ sent word to Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj to bring Muḥammad to him alive. However, Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj replied, "No, by Allah, that will not happen. They killed Kināna b. Bishr, and I should spare Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr? Is that possible?" Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, was among those who killed ʿUthmān. When ʿUthmān asked them for water, they refused. When Muḥammad was captured, he asked for water, but Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj replied, "If I give you a drop of water, may Allah never let me drink for eternity, for you deprived ʿUthmān of water. Allah gave him a pure drink."
According to Ibn Jarīr and others, when Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, uttered insulting words against Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj, ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ, Muʿāwiya, and ʿUthmān, Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj became enraged and killed him, then threw his body among donkey carcasses and burned it. When ʿĀʾisha heard of this, she was greatly grieved and took Muḥammad's children, including her son Qāsim, under her care. After every prayer, ʿĀʾisha began to invoke curses against Muʿāwiya and ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ.
According to Wakidī, ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ came to Egypt with an army of 4,000, including Abū Aʿwar al-Sulamī. He met the Egyptians at a place called Musanna and fought fiercely. Eventually, Kināna b. Bishr b. ʿAṭṭāb al-Tujībī was killed. At that time, Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, fled and hid with a man named Jabalā b. Masrūq. Jabalā informed Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj of Muḥammad's whereabouts. Muʿāwiya b. Ḥudayj's men surrounded the house where Muḥammad was hiding. Muḥammad came out and fought them until he was killed. This event occurred in the month of Ṣafar in the thirty-eighth year of the Hijra. After Muḥammad was killed, ʿAlī sent al-Ashtar al-Nakhaʿī as governor to Egypt, but al-Ashtar died on the way. Allah knows best.
ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ sent a letter to Muʿāwiya reporting the situation in Egypt, the conquest, the people's obedience, their listening to commands, the unity of the community, and the fulfillment of orders.
According to Hishām b. Muḥammad al-Kalbī, Muḥammad b. Abī Ḥudhayfa b. ʿUtba was also captured after the killing of Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr. He was among those who incited the rebels against ʿUthmān and urged them to kill him. ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ captured him and sent him to Muʿāwiya, who did not want to kill him immediately, as he was his cousin. Muʿāwiya imprisoned him in Palestine, but he escaped. In the land of Balqāʾ, ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAmr b. Zalam pursued him. Muḥammad hid in a cave. When wild donkeys tried to enter the cave and saw Muḥammad, they were startled and fled. Some harvesters, noticing their donkeys fleeing, sensed something unusual, went to the cave, and found Muḥammad hiding there. They reported this to ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAmr b. Zalam, who, fearing Muʿāwiya might pardon him if sent, killed him himself.
Ibn al-Kalbī also reports this. According to Wakidī and others, Muḥammad b. Abī Ḥudhayfa was killed in the thirty-sixth year of the Hijra, as we have previously stated. Allah knows best.
Ibrāhīm b. Ḥusayn b. Dizil states in his book that ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ discovered the crime of a Copt from Egypt who had revealed Muslim secrets to the Byzantines and considered his property, amounting to about 13,000,000 dinars, as spoils.
Abū Mikhnaf, relying on certain chains of transmission, states that when ʿAlī heard of the killing of Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, the events in Egypt, and the conquest of the land by ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ, and that the Egyptians had rallied around him and Muʿāwiya, he addressed those around him, urging them to jihad, sabr (patient endurance), and to fight their enemies, the Syrians and Egyptians. He told them to meet at the area of Jirāʾ between Kūfa and Hīra. The next day, he set out for Jirāʾ and camped there, but no one followed him. In the evening, he summoned the notables of the people. When they came, he was sorrowful and despondent. He stood and addressed them as follows:
"Praise be to Allah, who decrees some matters and ordains some actions, who tests me with you, and who has afflicted me with those who do not obey when I command, and do not respond when I invite. I am amazed: Muʿāwiya calls some harsh and base men, and they respond to his call, even though he gives them no gifts or aid. Yet, two or three times a year, they go wherever he wishes. I call you—intelligent people, recipients of gifts and aid—yet you turn away from me, rebel against me, and oppose me. What is this?"
Mālik b. Kaʿb al-Awsī stood and called the people to obey ʿAlī, listen to his commands, and submit to him. Two thousand responded to his call. ʿAlī appointed Mālik b. Kaʿb as their commander. They marched for five days. Meanwhile, a group who had supported Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, in Egypt arrived and informed ʿAlī of the events in Egypt, how Muḥammad had been killed, and how ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ had seized the land. ʿAlī then sent word to Mālik b. Kaʿb, recalling him, fearing that the Syrians might ambush them before they reached Egypt.
The Iraqis began to oppose ʿAlī, disobeying his commands, ignoring his prohibitions, rebelling against him, and disregarding his judgments, words, and actions. They were ignorant, lacking in intelligence, coarse, and harsh. Many were wicked and sinful. ʿAlī then wrote to his governor in Basra, Ibn ʿAbbās, complaining of the opposition and stubbornness of the Iraqis. Ibn ʿAbbās sent him a letter of consolation, offering condolences for the death of Muḥammad, the son of Abū Bakr, urging him to be patient with people's lack of understanding and to endure their evil, assuring him that Allah's reward is better than this world. After this, Ibn ʿAbbās left Basra for Kūfa to join ʿAlī, leaving Ziyād as acting governor.
At that time, Muʿāwiya sent a letter with ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAmr al-Ḥaḍramī to the people of Basra, inviting them to accept the judgment rendered by ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ as arbitrator. When ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAmr al-Ḥaḍramī arrived in Basra, he stayed with the Banū Tamīm tribe, who protected him. Ziyād, Ibn ʿAbbās's deputy, moved against him, sending Aʿyūn b. Dabīʿa with a group. They fought, and Aʿyūn b. Dabīʿa was killed. After Ibn ʿAbbās left, Ziyād reported the events in Basra to ʿAlī by letter. At that time, ʿAlī sent Jāriya b. Qudāma al-Tamīmī with fifty men to his tribe, the Banū Tamīm, along with a letter addressed to them. As a result, most of the Banū Tamīm abandoned ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAmr al-Ḥaḍramī and left him unsupported. Jāriya besieged him and his men, who numbered forty or seventy, in a house. After stating their crimes, hearing their excuses, warning and frightening them, and seeing that they did not desist, he burned them with fire.