er-Riāya
Ḥāris al-Muḥāsibī (d. Baghdad, 243/857)
One of the oldest extant works that conveys to us the formative phase of Sufi ethics and thought is er-Riāya li-Ḥuqūq Allāh. Among the many works authored by al-Muḥāsibī, a noteworthy aspect is his authority in Islamic sciences outside of Sufism, especially in Kalām (Islamic theology).
The structure of er-Riāya does not resemble that of al-Qushayrī or al-Hujwīrī. It does not include the life stories of Sufis, and its treatment of terminology is also different. The main reason for this is that, in the 9th century, Sufis and their terms had not yet fully achieved independence. At that time, Sufi terminology was intertwined with terms from other sciences, and scholars, ascetics, and hadith transmitters were not very different from each other.
When examining al-Muḥāsibī's work, what is observed is his meticulous focus on religious-ethical subjects, and his attempt to capture the religious-psychological aspects of commands and prohibitions. In short, he emphasizes behaviors that can elevate a person to the highest station, namely the station of "taqwa" (God-consciousness). In addition, a large part of the book deals with maladies that erode spiritual values, such as ostentation, envy, arrogance, pride, and self-admiration, and he presents ways to remedy them. It has not yet been translated into Turkish.
al-Lumaʿ
Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj (d. Ṭūs, 378/988)
One of the oldest classics in our possession, the most important feature of al-Lumaʿ is that it points out certain errors that emerged in Sufi life. While al-Sarrāj does this on one hand, on the other he provides reasonable and satisfactory responses to criticisms directed at Sufi thought. In this respect, it is possible to evaluate him as "al-Sarrāj did in Nishapur what Junayd did in Baghdad."
Al-Sarrāj is the first Sufi to describe Sufi states and stations in a certain order. According to him, the stations are as follows, each necessitating the next: tawba (repentance), waraʿ (scrupulousness), zuhd (asceticism), faqr (poverty), sabr (patient endurance), riḍā (contentment with God's decree), tawakkul (reliance upon God). The states described in the first pages of the book are: murāqaba (vigilance), qurb (nearness), maḥabba (love), khawf (fear), rajāʾ (hope), shawq (longing), uns (intimacy), ṭumaʾnīna (tranquility), mushāhada (witnessing), yaqīn (certainty).
After discussing important topics such as samāʿ (spiritual audition), wajd (ecstasy), karāma (a saintly wonder), and shaṭḥiyya (ecstatic utterances), he examines errors in the Sufi world under the heading of "galat" (mistakes). The work was published by R. A. Nicholson (Leiden, 1914). It has not been translated into Turkish.
al-Taʿarruf
Abū Bakr al-Kalābādhī (d. Bukhara, 380/990)
Written in Arabic and fully titled al-Taʿarruf li-Madhhab Ahl al-Taṣawwuf, the most important feature of this work is that it conveys the perspectives of early Sufis on Islamic doctrinal matters.
In the introduction, al-Kalābādhī, lamenting about the Sufis of his time, states that he wrote his work to explain the truth to those who had come to hate this way of life due to false Sufis.
In the first section, under the heading of the Sufi concept and Sufi creed, he addresses doctrinal issues debated by scholars of Kalām, explaining the Sufi perspective and the dimensions they brought to these issues. In other sections, he introduces many Sufi terms in the classical manner.
A saying widespread in Sufi circles gives an idea of the value of this work: "If Taʿarruf did not exist, Sufism would not be known."
The Persian commentary was written by Ismāʿīl Mustamlī, and the Arabic commentary by ʿAlī Konevī. The work was translated into English by A. J. Arberry as The Doctrine of Sufism (Cambridge, 1936), and into Turkish by Süleyman Uludağ as Doğuş Devrinde Tasavvuf (Istanbul, 1979).
Ṭabaqāt
Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī (d. Nishapur, 412/1021)
The tradition of writing ṭabaqāt (biographical dictionaries) is widespread in the Islamic world. Many books have been written, organized alphabetically or otherwise, according to regions, professions, schools, or Sufi orders.
The oldest and most comprehensive work about Sufis that has survived to the present is this work by al-Sulamī. The author divides Sufis who lived before him into five groups (ṭabaqāt) and examines them. In the first four ṭabaqāt, twenty Sufis each are briefly introduced with their lives, shaykhs, famous murīds (disciples), and some observations and advice regarding Sufi ethics; in the last ṭabaqa, 23 Sufis are introduced. This classification was continued by later authors such as al-Harawī and Jāmī. Al-Qushayrī benefited greatly from Ṭabaqāt when writing his Risāla.
In the introduction, al-Sulamī states that in his earlier work Kitāb al-Zuhd he wrote about the Companions (ṣaḥāba) and the following generation, and that now it was time to write about the people of "ḥāl" (spiritual state), the Sufis.
Al-Harawī's Persian work Ṭabaqāt al-Ṣūfiyya is largely a translation of this work. Al-Sulamī's Ṭabaqāt was published by Nurettin Şeribe (Egypt, 1953). There is no Turkish translation.
Among the ṭabaqāt books devoted solely to Sufis, al-Shaʿrānī's Ṭabaqāt al-Kubrā and al-Munāwī's Kawākib are well known.
al-Risāla
ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Qushayrī (d. Nishapur, 465/1072)
If one were to list the most widespread works in the world of Sufism and Sufi orders, the work of ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Qushayrī would be among the first. Written in the 11th century in Nishapur, the most important feature of this work is that it describes all the depths of Sufi life without compromising religious principles. Written in Arabic and titled al-Risāla fī al-Taṣawwuf, the introduction points to the decline in Sufi life, and states that it was written to describe the characteristics of earlier Sufis and to help those wishing to enter the path.
After the introduction, the lives and some Sufi views of 83 Sufis up to his time are briefly presented. The most important section of the book is devoted to Sufi terminology, and Sufi states and stations. In this section, more than 100 terms are analyzed in detail, starting from their meanings in the Qur'an and hadith. In addition to Arabic commentaries, there are Persian and Turkish translations, and some sections have been translated into English. The extent of its dissemination can be understood from the statement of Taşköprizade: "No calamity befalls a house in which the Qushayrī Risāla is found." The latest fine Turkish translation was made by Süleyman Uludağ (Istanbul, 1979).
Iḥyāʾ
Imam al-Ghazālī (d. Ṭūs, 505/1111)
One of the most remarkable figures not only in the history of Sufism but also in the history of Islamic thought is al-Ghazālī. Having produced enduring works in almost every field of Islamic sciences, Imam al-Ghazālī ultimately stated that the "truth" can only be attained through the Sufi method, and his entry into Sufi life brought new horizons to this thought. He narrates this journey in detail in his work al-Munqidh.
Although he has other works on Sufi ethics, Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn is his most famous work. In fact, a quarter of this work is directly related to our subject; the other sections deal with other religious matters such as prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and zakat. Al-Ghazālī put all his strength and grandeur into this work, and its title indicates his aim: the Revival of the Religious Sciences.
The most important aspect of the work and its author for Sufism and Sufi orders is that they beautifully demonstrate the harmony between religious principles and Sufi rules. The doubts that began in the early centuries and continued until the 6th century for the Sufi world were now resolved, and the way was opened for Sufi thought. For this reason, some who attribute the decline of Islamic civilization to Sufism also hold al-Ghazālī responsible at this point.
Al-Ghazālī is also one of the Muslim personalities most studied by Western researchers. M. Watt's work has been translated into Turkish. Turkish translations of the Iḥyāʾ have been made.
ʿAwārif
Shihāb al-Dīn al-Suhrawardī (d. Baghdad, 632/1236)
One of the most widespread works of the era of Sufi orders is ʿAwārif al-Maʿārif. Composed in 63 chapters, this work presents Sufi ethics and terminology along with the scholarly methods of its time. Al-Suhrawardī, who did not pay much attention to expressions in Sufi thought that strained religious principles, sometimes chose to interpret them. Another important aspect taught by ʿAwārif is the life of the khānqāh (Sufi lodge), its internal rules, and working methods.
In the introduction, the author points to an issue emphasized by earlier colleagues such as al-Qushayrī and al-Kalābādhī: the decline in Sufi life and the writing of the work to answer the questions that arose in minds due to this decline.
The work, in addition to its Arabic commentaries, has been translated into Persian several times. The first Turkish translation, by Bigalı Ahmed, was completed in 1458. In recent years, two separate Turkish translations have been published. ʿAwārif was translated into English by H. Wilberforce (London, 1891; New York, 1970) and into German by R. Gramlich (Wiesbaden, 1978).
Fuṣūṣ
Muḥyiddīn ibn ʿArabī (d. Damascus, 638/1240)
If one were to ask, "Which is the most loved and most criticized book in the history of Sufism?" the definite answer would be Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.
Although similar ideas existed among earlier Sufis, Ibn ʿArabī is regarded as the architect of the doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd (the oneness of being).
The foundational book of this perspective, which can be summarized as "There is no true existence except Allah," is Fuṣūṣ.
This work, which is the summary of the summary of the author's voluminous Futūḥāt, consists of 27 chapters. In each chapter, a wisdom associated with one of the 27 Prophets mentioned in the Qur'an is presented and interpreted.
These interpretations have produced a completely different understanding of religion, wisdom, Sufism, the universe, humanity, and existence. In the opening lines, the author states that in a true dream he saw in Damascus in 627/1229, the Prophet himself gave him the Fuṣūṣ. In later centuries, waḥdat al-wujūd became a much-debated topic, and not only scholars outside Sufi life but also Sufis such as Simnānī and Imam Rabbānī objected to it.
Among the prominent figures of the Naqshbandiyya, Muḥammad Pārsā likened Fuṣūṣ to the soul and Futūḥāt to the heart.
Fuṣūṣ is one of the most commented upon and refuted works. The first Arabic commentary in the Ottoman world was written by Dāwūd al-Qayṣarī. Later, Abdullah Bosnevi wrote a Turkish commentary. The latest four-volume Turkish commentary belongs to Ahmed Avni Konuk (Istanbul, 1987–1992). There is also a Turkish translation of the text. Through these translations and commentaries, the dissemination of Fuṣūṣ increased, and the dimensions of Sufi thought in terms of gnosis, wisdom, and philosophy were presented to interested readers.
Wāridāt
Bedreddin Simāwī (d. Serez, 823/1420)
"Wāridāt," meaning inspirations that come to the heart, is a small work containing Shaykh Bedreddin's views on Sufi matters. Due to his execution by the political authorities, Shaykh Bedreddin's works, especially Wāridāt, and his disciples were closely monitored, and the spread of the Bedreddiniyya was not permitted. In general, the topics discussed in Wāridāt are some views and interpretations of Sufis of the waḥdat al-wujūd school. Although Shaykh Bedreddin does not present ideas beyond those of Ibn ʿArabī, whom he mentions with respect, Ibn ʿArabī was highly esteemed in Ottoman society, while Shaykh Bedreddin was almost ostracized. This observation alone suffices to show that the issue is intertwined with subjective evaluations and partisanship. In Wāridāt, which begins with the sentence, "Know that matters of the Hereafter are not as the ignorant claim," topics are explained from a philosophical and Sufi perspective, and it is sometimes asserted that "this matter is not as the ignorant and madrasa scholars claim."
The latest Turkish translation of the work is by Cengiz Ketene (Ankara, 1990).
Maktūbāt
Imam Rabbānī (d. Sirhind, 1035/1625)
One of the prominent figures not only of the Naqshbandiyya but also of Sufi history is Imam Rabbānī, known as Maḥmūd b. Aḥmad of India. His mastery of other Islamic sciences, combined with his powerful expression, led to the expansion of his influence. The work Maktūbāt consists of letters he wrote to his friends, each discussing various Sufi issues. He struggled against two groups. The first group were the proponents of eclecticism, who sought to combine Indian and Islamic cultures. The second group were those who adopted Ibn ʿArabī's doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd. Nevertheless, Rabbānī adopted and appropriated other Sufi views of Ibn ʿArabī. In addition to the Naqshbandiyya, Rabbānī was also a murshid (spiritual guide) of the Qādiriyya, Chishtiyya, Suhrawardiyya, and Kubrawiyya orders. Most of these letters are in Persian, some in Arabic. There are Urdu and Turkish translations.
The work is important for clarifying many Sufi and Sufi order terms and for contributing to the spread of this culture in South Asia.
Tibyān
Ḥarīrizāde Kemālettin Efendi (d. Istanbul, 1881)
Although written in Arabic, the author was born and raised in Istanbul.
Comprising three volumes, Tibyān al-Wasāʾil al-Ḥaqāʾiq is an encyclopedia of Sufi orders. Ḥarīrizāde, who fit many Arabic-Turkish works into his 31-year life, was a person of the Malāmī disposition. He was the murshid of Bursalı Mehmet Tahir, the author of Osmanlı Müellifleri. The work has not yet been published (Süleymaniye Library, İbrahim Efendi, No. 430–432).
This voluminous work introduces more than 200 orders alphabetically, with their founders, manners, rules, and characteristics. A notable feature of Tibyān is that it transmits important treatises on Sufi orders either in full or in summary.