The aspect of Sufism (taṣawwuf) examined under the headings of asceticism (zuhd) and spiritual discipline (riyāḍa) generally concerns matter, objects, and the world; it encompasses opinions and interpretations related to these. Its second important aspect is the dimension of contemplation and philosophy. Sufis have also engaged with the domains accessible to human thought and reflection. These interpretations, known as the "philosophy of Sufism (taṣawwuf)", contain some of the most striking features of Islamic philosophy.
It should also be added that in Shi'i Iran, where the phenomenon of the Sufi order (tariqa) as seen in Sunni societies is not encountered, the philosophical dimension of the subject lives on vibrantly under the name ʿIrfāniyya. That one of the books Khomeini regularly taught and commented upon was the Fusūs al-Ḥikam is just one notable piece of evidence for this.
To express it in the Sufis' own terminology: The aim of Sufism (taṣawwuf) is to cultivate the perfect human (insān-i kāmil). The insān-i kāmil is the person who fulfills his duties toward Allah, other humans, and other creatures fully and consciously. Another name for this station is "to be adorned with the character traits of Allah", that is, to become a being in whom all of His beautiful attributes are manifest. The description of the human as "Allah's vicegerent" can also be viewed from this perspective (al-Baqara 2:30).
Cultural exchange between civilizations has always existed. Thus, just as Islamic civilization was influenced by neighboring civilizations, it also influenced some of them. Bodley's statement, "We owe the Renaissance to Islam," is as true as the influence of Hellenistic philosophy on the Islamic world in the 9th century. To return to the emergence of Sufism (taṣawwuf): Despite everything, what matters for a dervish is what Allah and His Messenger (peace be upon him) have said; it is the lifestyle and recommendations of the Prophet and his Companions (ṣaḥāba). Therefore, seeking a foreign influence at the origin of Sufism (taṣawwuf) and explaining the matter through external factors is not seen as particularly satisfactory. However, it is also not possible to claim that, in the course of historical development, people were not influenced by the ideas and systems produced in these neighboring civilizations.
Now, some verses (āyāt) and hadiths that prepared the ground for Sufi (taṣawwuf) interpretations, shed light on Sufi thought, and played a guiding role in the formation of its terminology can be cited: "Let not the worldly life delude you..." (Luqman 31:33). "Know that the life of this world is but amusement and diversion..." (al-ʿAnkabūt 29:64). "They give preference to others over themselves, even if they are in need..." (al-Ḥashr 59:9). "They enjoy themselves and eat as grazing livestock eat..." (Muḥammad 47:12). "Do they not reflect upon the Qur'an, or are there locks upon their hearts (qulūb)..." (Muḥammad 47:24). "They fall upon their faces weeping, and it increases their humility when they listen to the Qur'an..." (al-Isrāʾ 17:109). "Is Allah not sufficient for His servant?" (al-Zumar 39:36). "Remember your Lord within yourself in humility and fear, without being apparent in speech, in the mornings and evenings" (al-Insān 76:25). "Be steadfast in taqwa (God-consciousness), and Allah will teach you" (al-Baqara 2:282). "We are closer to man than his jugular vein" (Qāf 50:16). "Wherever you turn, there is the Face of Allah" (al-Baqara 2:115). "He is the First and the Last, the Manifest and the Hidden" (al-Ḥadīd 57:3). "They reflect upon the creation of the heavens and the earth..." (Āl ʿImrān 3:191).
Some hadiths of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) are as follows: "Be in this world as if you were a stranger or a traveler" (Bukhari, Riqāq, 3). "Whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should speak good or remain silent" (Bukhari, ʿIlm, 18). "If you truly relied upon Allah (tawakkul), He would provide for you as He provides for the birds..." (Tirmidhi, Zuhd, 33). "Weep, and if you cannot weep, then at least appear sorrowful as if you are weeping..." (Ibn Mājah, Iqāmah, 176).
It is possible to multiply such verses (āyāt) and hadiths. However, it should be stated: These verses (āyāt) and admonitions have not produced the same effect in everyone. In other words, Muslims living in different environments have not responded to the same warnings in the same way. From this, when discussing the sources of Sufism (taṣawwuf), another source emerges after the Qur'an and Hadith: the human being, human temperament, the culture one receives, and one's perspective on matters all influence whether one is interested in Sufi life, feels sympathy or antipathy toward it. Not every person finds satisfaction in such a way of life and thought, or in spiritual and mystical interpretations; for example, some may be more interested in intellectual faculties than in spiritual ones. In fact, Sufis are aware of this reality of "creation". The clearest evidence of this is that they do not accept everyone who wishes to enter the Sufi (taṣawwuf) life, but make a decision after certain trials.
This difference in temperament and creation has influenced the emergence of various understandings, schools, and Sufi orders (tariqas) in the Islamic world. Beyond these, where do Muslim thinkers and scholars stand regarding the value given to knowledge derived from reason, transmission (sacred texts), and unveiling-inspiration (kashf-ilhām)? Looking from today to the past, it seems possible to examine the architects of this thought by dividing them into three categories.
1. Salafiyya: According to them, religious texts should be accepted as they are and believed in as such. Both rational interpretations and spiritual (qalb-based) interpretations can be misleading.
2. Kalāmiyya: The theologians (ʿulamāʾ of the exoteric sciences) representing the madrasa sciences and mentality have introduced reason as a fundamental element in explaining religious texts, resorted to interpretation (taʾwīl), brought rational-philosophical dimensions to religious matters, and have invalidated the inspirations and unveilings of the Sufis.
3. Sufiyya: According to the Sufi mystics representing the culture of the Sufi lodge (tekke), it is necessary to bring both rational and spiritual-esoteric (qalb-bāṭinī) dimensions to the religious texts known as transmission and explicit text (naql and naṣṣ), i.e., the Qur'an and noble hadiths, and to view them in this way. For, just as reason is a source of knowledge, so too is the heart (qalb). The 14-century-old Sufi (taṣawwuf) culture is the result of this view. It is also possible to add Muslim philosophers as a fourth group to this classification.
FIRST SECTION